Keywords
judgment of learning
memory
metacognition
metamemory
How to Cite
Abstract
This study reviews empirical articles on the effect of emotional stimuli on metamemory. Although studies consistently show that emotional stimuli are evaluated more permanently in the memory by receiving higher metamemory evaluations, the effects of emotional stimuli on memory performance cannot provide such a consistent result. While some of the studies find no difference between emotional and neutral stimuli in terms of memory performance, other studies show a memory advantage for emotional stimuli, particularly when it comes to words and word pairs, and a memory advantage for neutral stimuli when it comes to facial expressions, pictures and images. According to the results of the studies, it is thought that the emotionality of the stimulus is perceived by the participants as a cue about future memory performance, and individuals make their evaluations according to the presence of these clues rather than direct access to memory. As a result, the effect of emotional stimuli on metamemory performance varies according to the nature of the stimulus, the emotional valence of the stimulus, the type of task and the age of the participants. The limitations of most of the reviewed studies, such as representing a limited age and socioeconomic group and the lack of controls for participants' current emotional states, have been discussed. Additionally, suggestions have been made for future studies to examine the role of emotional valence and arousal levels, as well as the neuroscientific basis of the effect.
References
Bäuml, K.-H. ve Kuhbandner, C. (2009). Positive moods can eliminate intentional forgetting. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.3758/PBR.16.1.93
Buchanan, T. ve Adolphs, R. (2002). The role of the human amygdala in emotional modulation of long-term declarative memory. In S. Moore & M. Oaksford (Eds.), Emotional cognition: From brain to behavior (pp. 9-34). London: Benjamins.
Charles, S. T., Mather, M. ve Carstensen, L. L. (2003). Aging and emotional memory: The forgettable nature of negative images for older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 310–324. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.2.310
Compare, A., Brugnera, A., Adorni, R. ve Sakatani, K. (2016). Effects of positive and negative mood induction on the prefrontal cortex activity measured by near infrared spectroscopy. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology Oxygen Transport to Tissue XXXVIII, 151–157. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-38810-6_20
Çapan, D. ve Ikier, S. (2021). Metamemory and Memory Discrepancies in Directed Forgetting of Emotional Information. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 17(1), 44–52. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.2567
D’Angelo, M. C. ve Humphreys, K. R. (2012). Emotional cues do not increase the likelihood of tip-of-the- tongue states. Memory & Cognition,40(8), 1331-1338. doi:10.3758/s13421-012-0235-z
Do Lam, A. T. A., Axmacher, N., Fell, J., Staresina, B. P., Gauggel, S., Wagner, T., Olligs, J. ve Weis, S. (2012). Monitoring the mind: The neurocognitive correlates of metamemory. PLoS One,7(1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030009
Dunlosky, J. ve Nelson, T. O. (1992). Importance of the kind of cue for judgments of learning (JOL) and the delayed-JOL effect. Memory & Cognition, 20(4), 374-380. doi:10.3758/bf03210921
Dunlosky, J., Mueller, M. L. ve Tauber, S. K. (2015). The contribution of processing fluency (and beliefs) to people’s judgments of learning. In D. S. Lindsay, A. P. Yonelinas, H. I. Roediger, D. S. Lindsay, A. P. Yonelinas, & H. I. Roediger (Eds.), Remembering: Attributions, processes, and control in human memory: Essays in honor of larry jacoby (pp. 46–64). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Efklides, A. ve Petkaki, C. (2005). Effects of mood on students metacognitive experiences. Learning and Instruction, 15(5), 415-431. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2005.07.010
Efklides, A. (2016). Metamemory and affect. In J. Dunlosky & S. K. Tauber (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of metamemory (pp. 245–267). Oxford University Press.
Eich, E. ve Metcalfe, J. (1989). Mood dependent memory for internal versus external events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15(3), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.15.3.443
Ellis, H. C., Ottaway, S. A., Varner, L. J., Becker, A. S. ve Moore, B. A. (1997). Emotion, motivation, and text comprehension: The detection of contradictions in passages. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126(2), 131-146. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.126.2.13
Fairfield, B., Mammarella, N., Palumbo, R. ve Domenico, A. D. (2015). Emotional Meta-Memories: A Review. Brain Sciences,5(4), 509-520. doi:10.3390/brainsci5040509
Flavell, J. (1971). First discussant’s comments: what is memory development the development of? Human Development, 14(4), 272–278. doi: 10.1159/000271221
Flavell, J. H. ve Ross, L. (2011). Social cognitive development: Frontiers and possible futures. Cambridge University Press.
Fleming, S. M. ve Dolan, R. J. (2012). The Neural Basis of Metacognitive Ability. The Cognitive Neuroscience of Metacognition, 245-265. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45190-4_11
Gençöz, T. (2000). Pozitif ve Negatif Duygu Ölçeği: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 15(46), 19-26.
Gendolla, G. H. ve Krüsken, J. (2002). The joint impact of mood state and task difficulty on cardiovascular and electrodermal reactivity in active coping. Psychophysiology, 38(3), 548–556. doi: 10.1017/s0048577201000622
Hertzog, C. ve Dunlosky, J. (2011). Metacognition in later adulthood: Spared monitoring can benefit older adults’ self-regulation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 167–173. doi:10.1177/0963721411409026
Hourihan, K. L. ve Bursey, E. (2015). A misleading feeling of happiness: Metamemory for positive emotional and neutral pictures. Memory,25(1), 35-43. doi:10.1080/09658211.2015.1122809
Hourihan, K. L., Fraundorf, S. H. ve Benjamin, A. S. (2017). The influences of valence and arousal on judgments of learning and on recall. Memory & Cognition, 45(1), 121–136. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-016-0646-3
Hourihan K. L. (2020). Misleading emotions: judgments of learning overestimate recognition of negative and positive emotional images. Cognition & Emotion, 34(4), 771–782. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1682972
Irak, M. ve Tosun, A. (2008). Exploring the role of metacognition in obsessive–compulsive and anxiety symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22(8), 1316-1325. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.01.012
Irak, M., Soylu, C. ve Çapan, D. (2016). Bilissel ve norobiyolojik yönleriyle yetiskin baglanmasi. In M. Irak, Davranış Bozuklukları ve Bilis. Bahcesehir University Press
Isola, P., Xiao, J., Parikh, D., Torralba, A. ve Oliva, A. (2014). What makes a photograph memorable? IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 36(7), 1469–1482.
Jönsson, F. U. (2005). Odor Emotionality Affects the Confidence in Odor Naming. Chemical Senses, 30(1), 29-35. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjh254
Kao, Y. C., Davis, E. S. ve Gabrieli, J. D. (2005). Neural correlates of actual and predicted memory formation. Natural Neuroscience, 8(12),1776-1783. doi:10.1038/nn1595
Kensinger, E. A. ve Corkin, S. (2003). Memory enhancement for emotional words: Are emotional words more vividly remembered than neutral words? Memory & Cognition, 31(8), 1169–1180. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03195800
Kensinger, E. A. ve Schacter, D. L. (2006). Processing emotional pictures and words: effects of valence and arousal. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 6(2), 110–126. https://doi.org/10.3758/cabn.6.2.110
Koriat, A. (1997). Monitoring one’s own knowledge during study: A cue-utilization approach to judgments of learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126, 349-370.
Lane, A. M., Whyte, G. P., Terry, P. C. ve Nevill, A. M. (2005). Mood, self-set goals and examination performance: The moderating effect of depressed mood. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(1), 143-153. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.12.015
Lee, H., Heller, A. S., Reekum, C. M. V., Nelson, B. ve Davidson, R. J. (2012). Amygdala– prefrontal coupling underlies individual differences in emotion regulation. NeuroImage, 62(3), 1575–1581. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.05.044
Legrand, N., Engen, S. S., Correa, C. M. C., Mathiasen, N. K., Nikolova, N., Fardo, F. ve Allen, M. (2021). Emotional metacognition: stimulus valence modulates cardiac arousal and metamemory. Cognition & Emotion, 35(4), 705–721. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2020.1859993
Magnussen, S., Andersson, J., Cornoldi, C., De Beni, R., Endestad, T., Goodman, G. S., Helstrup, T., Koriat, A., Larsson, M., Melinder, A., Nilsson, L. G., Rönnberg, J. ve Zimmer, H. (2006). What people believe about memory. Memory, 14(5), 595–613. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210600646716
Mather, M. ve Carstensen, L. L. (2005). Aging and motivated cognition: The positivity bias in attention and memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 496–502. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.08.005
McGaugh J. L. (2004). The amygdala modulates the consolidation of memories of emotionally arousing experiences. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144157
Nelson, T. O. ve Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 125–173. doi: 10.1016/s0079- 7421(08)60053-5
Nomi, J. S., Rhodes, M. G. ve Cleary, A. M. (2013). Emotional facial expressions differentially influence predictions and performance for face recognition. Cognition & Emotion, 27(1), 141-149. doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.679917
Ochsner, K. N. (2000). Are affective events richly recollected or simply familiar? The experience and process of recognizing feelings past. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,129(2), 242-261. doi:10.1037//0096-3445.129.2.242
Payne, B. K. ve Corrigan, E. (2007). Emotional constraints on intentional forgetting. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(5), 780-786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.07.005
Resch, E. (2012). The impact of picture cue emotionality on metamemory and cued recall of associated words (Yüksek lisans tezi, Stockholm Üniversitesi). https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-77649
Schmoeger, M., Deckert, M., Loos, E. ve Willinger, U. (2020). How influenceable is our metamemory for pictorial material? The impact of framing and emotionality on metamemory judgments. Cognition, 195, 104-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104112
Schwartz, B. L. (2002). Tip-of-the-tongue states: Phenomenology, mechanism, and lexical retrieval. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schwartz, B. L. (2010). The effects of emotion on tip-of-the-tongue states. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17(1), 82–87. https://doi.org/10.3758/PBR.17.1.82
Sharot, T., Delgado, M. R. ve Phelps, E. A. (2004). How emotion enhances the feeling of remembering. Nature Neuroscience, 7(12), 1376–1380. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1353
Spada, M. M., Nikčević, A. V., Moneta, G. B. ve Wells, A. (2007). Metacognition as a mediator of the relationship between emotion and smoking dependence. Addictive Behaviors, 32(10), 2120–2129. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.012
Strain, A. C., Azevedo, R. ve D’Mello, S. K. (2013). Using a false biofeedback methodology to explore relationships between learners’ affect, metacognition, and performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(1), 22-39. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.08.001
Talarico, J. M. ve Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14, 455–461. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.02453
Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson, T., & Moscovitch, M. (2007). The role of attention and relatedness in emotionally enhanced memory. Emotion, 7(1), 89–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.89
Tauber, S. K., Dunlonsky, J., Urry, H. L. ve Opitz, P. C. (2016). The effect of emotion on younger and older adults’ monitoring of learning. Aging Neuropsychology, and Cognition, DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2016.1227423
Tauber, S. K. ve Dunlosky, J. (2012). Can older adults accurately judge their learning of emotional information? Psychology and Aging,27(4), 924-933. doi:10.1037/a0028447
Underwood, B. W. (1966). Individual and group predictions of item difficulty for free learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71, 673-679. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023107 van der Plas, E., Zhang, S., Dong, K., Bang, D., Li, J., Wright, N. D. ve Fleming, S. M. (2022). Identifying cultural differences in metacognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 151(12), 3268– 3280. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001209
van Hemert, D. A., Poortinga, Y. H. ve van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2007). Emotion and culture: A meta- analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 21(5), 913–943. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930701339293
Wells, A. (2000). Emotional disorders and metacognition: Innovative cognitive therapy. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Westermann, R., Spies, K., Stahl, G. ve Hesse, F. W. (1996). Relative effectiveness and validity of mood induction procedures: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 557–580. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199607)26:4<557::AID-EJSP769>3.0.CO;2-4
Witherby, A. E. ve Tauber, S. K. (2017). Monitoring of learning for emotional faces: How do fine-grained categories of emotion influence participants’ judgments of learning and beliefs about memory? Cognition and Emotion,32(4), 860-866. doi:10.1080/02699931.2017.1360252
Yussen, S. R. (1985) The role of metacognition in contemporary theories of cognitive development. Metacognition, Cognition, and Human Performance. 253-283
Zimmerman, C. A. ve Kelley, C. M. (2010). “I’ll remember this!” Effects of emotionality on memory predictions versus memory performance. Journal of Memory and Language, 62(3), 240-253. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2009.11.004
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nesne Psikoloji Dergisi