Keywords
male violence
Implicit Association Test
implicit attitudes
How to Cite
Abstract
Violence is being researched increasingly. However, these studies mostly focus on explicit attitudes. Studies focusing on the implicit cognitive structure point to three implicit attitudes: Implicit attitudes towards gender, implicit attitudes towards violence, and implicit associations between gender and violence. In the present study, it is aimed to examine the relationship between these implicit attitudes of men and their demographic characteristics including age, education, employment status, income and socio-economic status, and Belief in a Just World (BJW). To measure implicit attitudes, three Implicit Association Tests (IATs) were translated into Turkish. Two hundred two men, aged between 18 and 55 years (M. = 27.96, SD = 9.68), participated in the study. The findings revealed that implicit attitudes towards gender and violence were associated with age, but not with other demographics. While implicit associations between gender and violence did not differ in terms of demographics, they were found to be related to implicit attitudes towards gender and General BJW. The results were evaluated in the context of normalizing violence against women in society. It is thought that the IATs used can contribute to the intervention programs in Turkey, and the findings obtained with this demographically diverse sample can contribute to the relevant literature.
References
Abramsky, T., Watts, C. H., Garcia-Moreno, C., Devries, K., Kiss, L., Ellsberg, M., Jansen, H. A. ve Heise, L. (2011). What factors are associated with recent intimate partner violence? Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence. BMC Public Health, 11(109), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-109
Alparslan, K. ve Kuşdil, M. E. (2020). Kürt üniversite öğrencilerinin kimlik yönetim stratejileri ve dış-grup tarafgirliğinin kimlikle ilgili eylem ve hedeflerle ilişkileri: Açık ve örtük ölçümlerle bir inceleme. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 35(özel sayı), 80–98. https://doi.org/10.31828/tpd1300443320200905x000040
Ashton, L. M., Hutchesson, M. J., Rollo, M. E., Morgan, P. J. ve Collins, C. E. (2014). A scoping review of risk behaviour interventions in young men. BMC Public Health, 14(957), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-957
Birleşmiş Milletler (2020). The world’s women 2020: Trends and statistics. Erişim adresi: https://worlds-women-2020-data-undesa.hub.arcgis.com/pages/violence-against-women-and-the-girl-child
Bora, A. (2012). Toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı ayrımcılık. M. Ceyhan ve K. Çayır (Ed.), Ayrımcılık çok boyutlu yaklaşımlar (s. 175-187) içinde. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
Bora, A. ve Gölge, Z. B. (2019). Evlilikte kadına yönelik şiddete ilişkin tutumların cinsiyet, eğitim durumu ve şiddet yaşantıları ile ilişkisinin incelenmesi. Türkiye Klinikleri Adli Tıp ve Adli Bilimler Dergisi, 16(2), 88–97. https://doi.org/10.5336/forensic.2018-63025
Dalbert, C. (2001). The justice motive as a personal resource: Dealing with challenges and critical life events. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Dalbert, C. (1999). The world is more just for me than generally: About the personal belief in a just world scale's validity. Social Justice Research, 12(2), 79–98. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022091609047
Dalbert, C., Montada, L. ve Schmitt, M. (1987). Glaube an eine gerechte welt als motiv: Validierungskorrelate zweier skalen (Belief in a just world: Validity correlates of two scales). Psychologische Beiträge, 29, 596–615.
Dalbert, C. ve Umlauft, S. (2009). The role of the justice motive in economic decision making. Journal of Economic Psychology, 30(2), 172–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2008.07.006
Daugherty, S. L., Blair, I. V., Havranek, E. P., Furniss, A., Dickinson, L. M., Karimkhani, E., Main, D. S. ve Masoudi, F. A. (2017). Implicit gender bias and the use of cardiovascular tests among cardiologists. Journal of The American Heart Association, 6(12), e006872. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.117.006872
Doğulu, C. (2012). System justification and terror management: Mortality salience as a moderator of system- justifying tendencies in gender context. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, Ankara.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B. ve Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33(5), 510–540. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1997.1331
Eckhardt, C. I. ve Crane, C. A. (2014). Male perpetrators of intimate partner violence and implicit attitudes toward violence: Associations with treatment outcomes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 38(3), 291–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-013-9593-5
Eckhardt, C. I., Samper, R., Suhr, L. ve Holtzworth-Munroe, A. (2012). Implicit attitudes toward violence among male perpetrators of intimate partner violence: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(3), 471–491. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511421677.
George, D. ve Mallery, M. (2010). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference, 17.0 update. Boston: Pearson.
Göregenli, M. (2003). Şiddet, kötü muamele ve işkenceye ilişkin değerlendirmeler, tutumlar ve deneyimler. İzmir: İzmir Barosu Yayınları.
Greenwald, A. G. ve Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E. ve Schwartz, J. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464– 1480. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.6.1464
Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A. ve Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 197– 216. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197
Hafer, C. L. (2000). Do innocent victims threaten the belief in a just world? Evidence from a modified Stroop task. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(2), 165–173. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.79.2.165
IBM Corp. (2015). IBM SPSS statistics for Windows, version 23.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.
Jacoby-Senghor, D. S., Sinclair, S., Smith, C. T. ve Skorinko, J. (2019). Implicit bias predicts liking of ingroup members who are comfortable with intergroup interaction. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(4), 603–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218793136
Jahromi, M. K, Jamali, S., Rahmanian Koshkaki, A. ve Javadpour, S. (2016). Prevalence and risk factors of domestic violence against women by their husbands in Iran. Global Journal of Health Science, 8(5), 175–183. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v8n5p175
Kadın Cinayetlerini Durduracağız Platformu (Ocak 2021). Kadın cinayetlerini durduracağız platformu 2020 raporu. Erişim adresi: http://kadincinayetlerinidurduracagiz.net/veriler/2947/kadin-cinayetlerini-durduracagiz-platformu-2020-raporu
Lelaurain, S., Fonte, D., Graziani, P. ve Lo Monaco, G. (2019). French validation of the domestic violence myth acceptance scale (DVMAS). Affilia, 34(2), 237–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109918806273
Lerner, M. J. (2003). The justice motive: Where psychologists found it, how they lost it, and why they may not find it again. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7, 388–399. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0704_10
Lerner, M. J. (1998). The two forms of belief in a just world: Some thoughts on why and how people care about justice. L. Montada ve M. J. Lerner (Ed.), Critical issues in social justice. Responses to victimizations and belief in a just world (s. 247–269) içinde. New York, NY: Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-6418-5_13
Lerner, M. J. (1980). The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Lerner, M. J. ve Goldberg, J. H. (1999). When do decent people blame victims? The differing effects of the explicit/rational and implicit/experiential cognitive systems. S. Chaiken ve Y. Trope (Ed.), Dual- process theories in social psychology (ss. 627–640) içinde. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Lerner, M. J. ve Miller, D. T. (1978). Just world research and the attribution process: Looking back and ahead. Psychological Bulletin, 85(5), 1030–1051. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.85.5.1030
Lipkus, I. M., Dalbert, C. ve Siegler, I. C. (1996). The importance of distinguishing the belief in a just world for self versus for others: Implications for psychological well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(7), 666–677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167296227002
McConnell, A. R. ve Leibold, J. M. (2001). Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37(5), 435–442. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.2000.1470
Millisecond Software (2016). Inquisit 5 Lab. Seattle, WA, USA. Erişim adresi: https://www.millisecond.com
Modesto, J. G. ve Pilati, R. (2015). Implicit deservingness: Implicit association test for belief in a just world. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 49(2), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.30849/rip/ijp.v49i2.33
Neumann, R., Hülsenbeck, K. ve Seibt, B. (2004). Attitudes towards people with AIDS and avoidance behavior: Automatic and reflective bases of behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(4), 543–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2003.10.006
Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G. ve Banaji, M. R. (2007b). The implicit association test at age 7: A methodological and conceptual review. J. A. Bargh (Ed.), Frontiers of social psychology. Social psychology and the unconscious: The automaticity of higher mental processes (s. 265–292) içinde. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Nosek, B. A. ve Smyth, F. L. (2007). A multitrait-multimethod validation of the implicit association test: Implicit and explicit attitudes are related but distinct constructs. Experimental Psychology, 54(1), 14–29. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169.54.1.14
Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Hansen, J. J., Devos, T., Lindner, N. M., Ranganath, K. A., Smith, C. T., Olson, K. R., Chugh, D., Greenwald, A. G. ve Banaji, M. R. (2007a). Pervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes. European Review of Social Psychology, 18, 36–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280701489053
Özdemir, G. ve Kuşdil, M. E. (2017). Başarılarımın sahibi ben değilim: Sosyal kimlik, sosyal baskınlık ve sistemi meşrulaştırma kuramları perspektifinden sahtekâr fenomeni. D. Kökdemir ve Z. Yeniçeri (Ed.), I. sosyal psikoloji kongresi bildiri kitabı (s. 158-172) içinde. Ankara: Başkent Üniversitesi Geliştirme Vakfı İktisadi İşletmesi. ISBN: 978-605-66074-5-5
Öztürk, A., Tosun, L. P, Özdemir, G., Çavuşoğlu, M., Alparslan, A., Polat, D., … Kuşdil, M. E. (2020). A validity and reliability study of the Turkish version of the ambivalent ageism scale. Turkish Journal of Geriatrics, 23(4), 534–545. http://doi.org/10.31086/tjgeri.2020.192
Pornari, C. D., Dixon, L. ve Humphreys, G. W. (2021). A Preliminary investigation into a range of implicit and explicit offense supportive cognitions in perpetrators of physical intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(3-4), NP2079–2111NP. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518755487
Sakallı-Uğurlu, N. ve Ulu, S. (2003). Evlilikte kadına yönelik şiddete ilişkin tutumlar: Çelişik duygulu cinsiyetçilik, yaş, eğitim ve gelir düzeyinin etkileri. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 6(11), 53–65.
Sakallı-Uğurlu, N., Yalçın, Z. S. ve Glick, P. (2007). Ambivalent sexism, belief in a just world, and empathy as predictors of Turkish students' attitudes toward rape victims. Sex Roles, 57(11-12), 889–895. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9313-2
Stickley, A., Timofeeva, I. ve Sparén, P. (2008). Risk factors for intimate partner violence against women in St. Petersburg, Russia. Violence Against Women, 14(4), 483–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208314847
Şenyurt, A. Y., Coşkun, H. ve Ünlü, E. S. (2020). Örtük Çağrışım Testi’ni Türkçeye uyarlama çalışması. OPUS Uluslararası Toplum Araştırmaları Dergisi, 15(26), 4437–4453. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.632149
Valor-Segura, I., Expósito, F. ve Moya, M. (2011). Victim blaming and exoneration of the perpetrator in domestic violence: The role of beliefs in a just world and ambivalent sexism. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 14(1), 195–206. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_sjop.2011.v14.n1.17
Wagstaff, G. F. ve Quirk, M. A. (1983). Attitudes to sex-roles, political conservatism and belief in a just world. Psychological Reports, 52(3), 813–814.
Zapata-Calvente, A. L., Moya, M., Bohner, G. ve Megías, J. L. (2019). Automatic associations and conscious attitudes predict different aspects of men’s intimate partner violence and sexual harassment proclivities. Sex Roles, 81(7-8), 439–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-1006-0
Zwets, A. J., Hornsveld, R. H. J., Muris, P., Huijding, J., Kanters, T., Snowden, R. J. ve van Marle, H. (2015). Implicit attitudes toward violence and their relation to psychopathy, aggression, and socially adaptive behaviors in forensic psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 26(5), 632–651. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2015.1037331
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2021 Nesne Psikoloji Dergisi