Keywords
PTSD
psychological difficulties
war trauma
Cyprus
How to Cite
Abstract
Traumatic events may have long lasting consequences on physical and psychological well-being. Moreover, exposure to traumatic events might have adverse intergenerational consequences. The aim of the present study was to explore individuals’ time perspectives (i.e. how individuals link their behavior to their past, present, and future), and their correlates with vulnerability to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and psychological difficulties on two samples; first a theoretically traumatic group whom their parent had gone missing during the war of Cyprus (N= 50; age range = 49-70) and their first born offspring (N= 50; age range = 26-40); second a theoretically non-traumatic group with no missing parent (N= 50; age range = 46-69) and their first born offspring (N= 50; age range = 20-39). Purposeful sampling technique was used to recruit the participants. Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), Impact of Event Scale-Revised and Zimbardo’s Time Perspective Inventory were used as measurement tools. Results of the study revealed that parents’ PTSD symptoms and time perspectives (TP) were associated with their offsprings’. Past-Negative and Present Fatalistic TP significantly predicted PTSD and experienced psychological difficulties. Participants whom had a relative gone missing during the war scored higher on PTSD compared to the participants whom had no missing relative.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5 th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
Anagnostopoulos, F., & Griva, F. (2011). Exploring Time Perspective in Greek young adults: Validation of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory and relationship with mental health indicators. Social Indicators Research Journal, 106, 41-59.
Anger, S., & Heineck, G. (2010). Do smart parents raise smart children? The intergenerational transmission of cognitive abilities. Journal of Population Economics, 23-3, 1105-1132.
Arnett, J. J. (2001). Conceptions of the transition to adulthood: Perspectives from adolescence through midlife. Journal of Adult Development, 8, 133-145.
Baraković, D., Avdibegović, E., & Sinanović, O. (2014). Posttraumatic stress disorder in women with war missing family members. Psychiatria Danubina, 26-4, 340-6.
Baron, L., Reznikoff, M., & Glenwick, D. S. (1993). Narcissism, interpersonal adjustment, and coping in children of Holocaust survivors. The Journal of Psychology, 127-3, 257-69.
Bayraktar, F. (2016, July). The predictors of hedonistic and future oriented time perspectives among Turkish Cypriot adolescents. Paper presented at XXXI. International Congress of Psychology, Yokohama, Japan.
Beratlı, N. (1997). Kıbrıslı Türklerin Tarihi [History of Turkish Cypriots]. Galeri Kültür Yayınları.
Boscarino, J. A. (1995). Post-traumatic stress and associated disorders among Vietnam veterans: The significance of combat exposure and social support. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 317–36.
Boudreaux, E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Best, C. L., & Saunders, B. E. (1998). Criminal victimization, posttraumatic stress disorder, and comorbid psychopathology among a community sample of women. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11-4, 665-678. doi:10.1023/a:1024437215004.
Commission on Missing Persons in Cyprus (2016, December 16). Retrieved from http://www.cmp-cyprus.org/content/facts-and-figures
Çorapçıoğlu, A., Yargıç, İ., Geyran, P., & Kocabaşoğlu, N. (2006). “Olayların Etkisi Ölçeği” (IES-R) Türkçe versiyonunun geçerlilik ve güvenirliliği. New Symposium Journal, 44 -1, 14-22.
Derogatis, L. R. (1993). BSI Brief Symptom Inventory: Administration, scoring, and procedure manual (4th Ed.). Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.
Ebner, N. C., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2006). Developmental changes in personal goal orientation from young to late adulthood: From striving for gains to maintenance and prevention of losses. Psychology and Aging, 21, 664-678.
Ergun, D., Cakici, M., & Cakisi, E. (2008). Comparing psychological responses of internally displaced and non-displaced Turkish Cypriots. Torture, 18-1, 20-8.
Heeke, C., Stammel, N., & Knaevelsrud, C. (2015). When hope and grief intersect: rates and risks of prolonged grief disorder among bereaved individuals and relatives of disappeared persons in Colombia. The Journal of Affective Disorders, 173-59, 64.
Horowitz, M., Wilner, M., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209-218.
Gronqvist, E., Ockert, B., & Vlachos, J. (2011). The intergenerational transmission of cognitive and non- cognitive abilities. IFN Working Paper, 884. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2050393
Gronqvist, E., Ockert, B., & Vlachos, J. (2017). The Intergenerational Transmission of Cognitive and Noncognitive Abilities. The Journal of Human Resources, 52, 887-918.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered Assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Press.
Kerr, M., & Bowen, M. (1988). Family evaluation: An approach based on Bowen Theory. NY, Norton.
Laffaye, C., Cavella, S., Drescher, K., & Rosen, C. (2008). Relationships among PTSD Symptoms, Social Support and Support Source in Veterans with Chronic PTSD. Journal of Trauma Stress, 21-4, 394-401. doi: 10.1002/jts.20348.
Lang, F. R., & Carstensen, L. L. (2002). Time Counts: Future Time Perspective, Goals and Social Relationships. Psychology and Aging, 17,125-139.
Lawrence, H. (2005). Epigenetic Inheritance and the Intergenerational Transfer of Experience. Psychological Bulletin, 131-3, 340-360. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.3.340
Lenferink, L.I.M., van Denderen, M.Y., Keijser, J., Wessel, I., & Boelen, P.A. (2017). Prolonged grief and post-traumatic stress among relatives of missing persons and homicidally bereaved individuals: A comparative study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 209, 1-2.
Lurie-Beck, J. K. (2007). The differential impact of holocaust trauma across three generations. Unpublished PhD thesis, Queensland University of Technology.
Mioni, G., Wittmann, M., Prunetti, E., & Stablum, F. (2020). Time Perspective and the Subjective Passage of Time in Patients with Borderline Personality Disorders. Timing & Time Perception, 8,86-101.
Nickerson, A., Priebe, S., Bryant, R. A., & Morina, N. (2014). Mechanisms of psychological distress following war in the former Yugoslavia: The role of interpersonal sensitivity. PLOS One. 21, 9- 3. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090503
Oyanadel, C., & Buela-Casal, G. (2014). The Time Perception and Psychopathology: Influence of Time Perspective on Quality of Life of Severe Mental Illness. The Actas Españolas de Psiquiatría. 42-3, 99-107.
Papastamatelou, J., Unger, A., & Zachariadis, A. (2020). Time perspectives and proneness to PTSD among Syrian refugees in Greece. Journal of Loss and Trauma. doi: 10.1080/15325024.2020.1793552.
Pham, P. M., Weinstein, H. M., & Longman, T. (2004). Trauma and PTSD symptoms in Rwanda: Implications for attitudes toward justice and reconciliation. American Medical Association, 292-5, 602-612.
Pearce, M. E., Christian, W. M., Patterson, K., Norris, K., Moniruzzaman, A., Craib, K. J. P., Schechter, M. T., & Spittal, P.M. (2008). The Cedar Project: Historical trauma, sexual abuse and HIV risk among young Aboriginal people who use injection and non-injection drugs in two Canadian cities. Social Science & Medicine, 66-11, 2185-2194.
Przepioarka, A., & Blachnio, A. (2016). Time perspective in Internet and Facebook addiction. Computers in Human Behavior, 60, 13-18.
Rosenheck, R., & Fontana, A. (1998). Transgenerational effects of abusive violence on the children of Vietnam combat veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 731-742.
Rowland-Klein, D., & Dunlop, R. (1998). The transmission of trauma across generations: Identification with parental trauma in children of Holocaust survivors. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 32-3, 358–69. doi: 10.3109/00048679809065528
Sack, W., McSharry, S., Clarke, G., Kinney, R., Seeley, J., & Lewinsohn, P. (1994). The Khmer Adolescent Project. I. Epidemiologic findings in two generations of Cambodian refugees. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 387-395.
Schulz, W., Schunck, R., Diewald, M., & Johnson, W. (2017). Pathways of intergenerational transmission of advantages during adolescence: Social background, cognitive ability, and educational attainment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 2194–2214.
Solsten, E. (1991). Cyprus: A country study. Federal Research Division Library of Congress U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D C. 20402
Stolarski, M., & Matthews, G. (2016). Time perspectives predict mood states and satisfaction with life over and above personality. Current Psychology, 35, 516-526.
Şahin, N. H., & Durak, A. (1994). Kısa Semptom Envanteri: Türk gençleri için uyarlanması. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 9-31, 44-56.
United Nations. (1993). Declaration on the protection of all persons from enforce disappearance. General Assembly. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/47/133
United Nations. (2002). Women, peace and security. UN Publication. No. E. 03. IV. 1. United Nations Publication, IV.1, ISBN 92-1-130222-6
Vasquez, A., & Cruz, O. (2013). “Start thinking what are you going to be when adult!”: The relationship between parental time orientation and the emergence of episodic foresight in preschool aged children. Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, (1), 13-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/978-989-26-0775-7_1
Volkan, V. D., Ast, G., & Greer, W. (2002). The Third Reich in the unconscious: Transgenerational transmission and its consequences. New York: Brunner/Routledge.
Weems, C. F., & Scheeringa, M. (2013). Maternal depression and treatment gains following a cognitive behavioral intervention for posttraumatic stress in preschool children. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27-1, 140–146. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.11.003
Yehuda, R., & Bierer, L. M. (2009). The relevance of epigenetics to PTSD: implications for the DSM-V. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22-5, 427–434.
Yehuda, R., & Lehrner, A. (2018). Intergenerational transmission of trauma effects: putative role of epigenetic mechanisms. World Psychiatry, 17, 243-257.
Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1271-1288. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1271
Zimbardo, P., Sword, R., & Sword, R. (2012). The Time Cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of Time Perspective Therapy. Jossey Bass.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2020 Nesne Psikoloji Dergisi