Anahtar Kelimeler
iç grup yanlılığı
iç grup kayırmacılığı
sosyal kimlik
Nasıl Atıf Yapılır
Öz
Bireyler, sosyal gruplarından kaynaklanan benlik saygılarını yükseltmek, avantajlı konumlarını korumak ve/veya avantajlı konuma geçmek için iç grup üyelerini dış grup üyelerinden daha olumlu değerlendirirler. Bu süreç boyunca hem bireylerin iç ve dış grup ve grup üyelerine yönelik kişisel tutumları hem de gruplar arası ilişkilerin tarihsel arka planı ve bu tarihsel sürecin yarattığı ya da değiştirdiği kültürel kodlar, bilinçli ya da bilinçsiz şekilde aktif olarak birey tarafından kullanılır. Bu araştırmada, kendisini Türkiye’nin en kalabalık iki etnik/toplumsal grubundan -Türkler ve Kürtler- birisine ait olarak kimliklendiren bireylerden, sorumlusunun her iki grup da olduğu belirtilen toplumsal bir kargaşa durumunda bir miktar parayı Kürtler ve Türkler arasında bölüştürmeleri istenmiştir. Ardından katılımcılardan kaynak paylaştırma kararlarının ardında yatan nedenleri açık uçlu olarak yazmaları istenmiştir. Verilen cevapların içerikleri incelenerek her iki gruba da eşit pay veren katılımcılar için beş -ayrımcılığa karşı eşitlik ve adalet, insan olmak, eşit ihtiyaç, çatışmadan kaçınmak ve grupları yeniden kategorilemek-, iç grup yanlılığı yapan katılımcılar için ise dört -benzerlik, iç grubu olumlama, dış grubu olumsuzlama ve ihtiyaç- tema oluşturulmuştur. Bağımsız iki yargıcıdan cevapları belirlenen temaların altına yerleştirmeleri istenmiş, yargıcılar arası tutarlılığın .65 ile .92 arasında olduğu görülmüştür. Temaların Türk ve Kürtler için kullanım oranları ve bu oranlar arasındaki farklılıklar Sosyal Kimlik Kuramı kapsamında tartışılmıştır.
Referanslar
Abrams, D., Eller, A. ve Bryant, J. (2006). An age apart: the effects of intergenerational contact and stereotype threat on performance and intergroup bias. Psychology and Aging, 21(4), 691-702. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.4.691
Abrams, D. ve Hogg, M. A. (Edl.). (2000). Social identity and social cognition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Anadolu Ajansı (2013, Ağustos 7). http://aa.com.tr/tr/politika/bulgaristan-daki-soydaslarimizi-kopru-olarak-goruyoruz/227172 adresinden erişilmiştir.
Anadolu Ajansı (2014, Mart 21). http://aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/turk-kulturune-hizmetlerimiz-devam-edecek/172863 adresinden erişilmiştir.
Anadolu Ajansı (2015, Ekim 8). http://aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/basbakan-davutoglu-soydaslarimizla-gonulden-gonule-anlasiriz-/436725 adresinden erişilmiştir.
Aras, B., Aydın, E., Bölme, S. M., Dağı, İ., Dalmış, İ., Ensaroğlu, Y., Ete, H., Küçükcan, T. ve ark. (2009). Türkiye’nin Kürt sorunu algısı. Ankara: SETA Yayınları VII.
Baysu, G. ve Coşkan, C. (2018). Reconciliation and intergroup forgiveness: the case of the Kurdish conflict in Turkey. Turkish Studies, 19(5), 748-772. doi: 10.1080/14683849.2018.1484287
Bennett, M., Barrett, M., Karakozov, R., Kipiani, G., Lyons, E., Pavlenko, V., ve Riazanova, T. (2004). Young children's evaluations of the ingroup and of outgroups: A multi‐national study. Social Development, 13(1), 124-141. doi: 10.1046/j.1467-9507.2004.00260.x
Bettencourt, B., Charlton, K., Dorr, N. ve Hume, D. L. (2001). Status differences and in-group bias: a meta-analytic examination of the effects of status stability, status legitimacy, and group permeability. Psychological bulletin, 127(4), 520-542. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.127.4.520
Billig, M. ve Tajfel, H. (1973). Social categorization and similarity in intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 3(1), 27-52. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420030103
Bourhis, R. Y. ve Gagnon, A. (2001). Social orientations in the minimal group paradigm. R. Brown ve S. Gaertner (Ed.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intergroup processes içinde (ss. 89-112). UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Branscombe, N. R. ve Wann, D. L. (1994). Collective self‐esteem consequences of outgroup derogation when a valued social identity is on trial. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24(6), 641-657. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2420240603
Braun, V. ve Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. doi: 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Brewer, M. B. (1979). In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 307-324. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.307
Brewer, M. B. (2001). Ingroup identification and intergroup conflict. R. D. Ashmore, L. Jussim ve D. Wilder (Ed.), Social identity, intergroup conflict and conflict reduction volume 3 içinde (ss. 17-41). UK: Oxford University Press
Brewer, M. B. ve Miller, N. (1984). Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. N. Miller ve M. B. Brewer (Edl.), Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation içinde (pp. 281-302). Orlando: Academic Press.
Brown, K. T. (2015). Perceiving allies from the perspective of non-dominant group members: Comparisons to friends and activists. Current Psychology, 34(4), 713-722. doi: 10.1007/s12144-014-9284-8
Brown, R. J. (1984). The role of similaritiy in intergroup relations. H. Tajfel (Ed.), The social dimension: Vol. 2 içinde (ss. 603-623). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Cadinu, M.R and Rothbart, M. (1996). Self-anchoring and differentiation processes in the minimal group setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(4), 661-677. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.70.4.661
Calissendorff, L., Brosché, J. ve Sundberg, R. (2018). Dehumanization amidst massacres: An examination of Dinka-Nuer intergroup attitudes in South Sudan. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/pac0000352
Chin, M. G. ve McClintock, C. G. (1993). The effects of intergroup discrimination and social values on level of self‐esteem in the minimal group paradigm. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23(1), 63-75. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420230106
Clarke, V. ve Braun, V. (2013). Teaching thematic analysis: Overcoming challenges and developing strategies for effective learning. The Psychologist, 26(2), 120-123.
Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 37-46. doi:10.1177/001316446002000104
Craig, M. A. ve Richeson, J. A. (2012). Coalition or derogation? How perceived discrimination influences intraminority intergroup relations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(4), 759-777. doi: 10.1037/a0026481
Creswell, J. W. (2015). Nitel araştırma yöntemleri: Beş yaklaşıma göre nitel araştırma ve araştırma deseni. Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi.
Crisp, R. J. ve Hewstone, M. (2007). Multiple social categorization. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 163-254. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(06)39004-1
Crisp, R. J., Stone, C. H. ve Hall, N. R. (2006). Recategorization and subgroup identification: Predicting and preventing threats from common ingroups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(2), 230-243. doi:10.1177/0146167205280908
Deutsch, M. (1975). Equity, equality, and need: What determines which value will be used as the basis of distributive justice? Journal of Social Issues, 31(3), 137-149. doi: 10.1111/j.1540- 4560.1975.tb01000.x
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Isen, A. M. ve Lowrance, R. (1995). Group representations and intergroup bias: Positive affect, similarity, and group size. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(8), 856-865. doi: 10.1177/0146167295218009
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L. ve Validzic, A. (1998). Intergroup bias: Status, differentiation, and a common in-group identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 109-120.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K. ve Gaertner, S. L. (2000). Reducing contemporary prejudice: Combating explicit and implicit bias at the individual and intergroup level. S. Oskamp (Ed.). Reducing prejudice and discrimination içinde (ss.137-163). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ellemers, N., Spears, R. ve Doosje, B. (Edl.). (1999). Social identity. Oxford: Blackwell.
Ensari, N. ve Miller, N. (2001). Decategorization and the reduction of bias in the crossed categorization paradigm. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(2), 193-216. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.42
Gaertner, S. L. ve Dovidio, J. F. (2014). Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. NY: Psychology Press.
Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., ve Rust, M. C. (1993). The common ingroup identity model: Recategorization and the reduction of intergroup bias. European Review of Social Psychology, 4(1), 1-26. doi: 10.1080/14792779343000004
Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Banker, B. S., Houlette, M., Johnson, K. M. ve McGlynn, E. A. (2000). Reducing intergroup conflict: From superordinate goals to decategorization, recategorization, and mutual differentiation. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4(1), 98-114. doi: 10.1037//1089-2699.4.1.98
Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Rust, M. C., Nier, J. A., Banker, B. S., Ward, C. M., Mottola, G. R. Ve Houlette, M. (1999). Reducing intergroup bias: Elements of intergroup cooperation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), 388-402. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.76.3.388
Göregenli, M. (2013). Ayrımcılığın Meşrulaştırılması. K. Çayır ve M. A. Ceyhan (Derl.). Ayrımcılık: Çok boyutlu yaklaşımlar içinde (ss. 39-54). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
Hallgren, K. A. (2012). Computing inter-rater reliability for observational data: An overview and tutorial. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 8(1), 23-30.
Hee, F., Finkelman, J., Lopez, P. D. ve Ensari, N. (2011). Reducing prejudice in organizations: The role of intergroup contact, out‐group homogeneity, and in‐group size. Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, 2(2), 39-59. doi: 10.1002/jpoc.20060
Hetherington, C., Hendrickson, C. ve Koenig, M. (2014). Reducing an in‐group bias in preschool children: The impact of moral behavior. Developmental Science, 17(6), 1042-1049. doi: 10.1111/desc.12192
Hewstone, M., Rubin, M., ve Willis, H. (2002). Intergroup bias. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 575-604. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135109
Hodson, G. ve Sorrentino, R. M. (2001). Just who favors in in-group? Personality differences in reactions to uncertainty in the minimal group paradigm. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 5(2), 92-101. doi: 10.1037/1089-2699.5.2.92
Jarymowicz, M. ve Bar‐Tal, D. (2006). The dominance of fear over hope in the life of individuals and collectives. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36(3), 367-392. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.302
Jetten, J., Spears, R. ve Manstead, A. S. (1996). Intergroup norms and intergroup discrimination: Distinctive self-categorization and social identity effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(6), 1222-1233. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.71.6.1222
Jetten, J., Spears, R. ve Manstead, A. S. (1997a). Strength of identification and intergroup differentiation: The influence of group norms. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27(5), 603-609. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199709/10)27:5<603::AID-EJSP816>3.0.CO;2-B
Jetten, J., Spears, R. ve Manstead, A. S. (1997b). Distinctiveness threat and prototypicality: Combined effects on intergroup discrimination and collective self‐esteem. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27(6), 635-657. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199711/12)27:6<635::AID- EJSP835>3.0.CO;2-%23
Jetten, J.,Spears, R. ve Postmes, T. (2004). Intergroup distinctiveness and differentiation: A meta- analytic integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(6), 862-879. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.86.6.862
Jost, J. T., Pelham, B. W., Sheldon, O. ve Sullivan, B. N. (2003). Social inequality and the reduction of ideological dissonance on behalf of the system: Evidence of enhanced system justification among the disadvantaged. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33(1), 13-36. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.127
Judd, C. M., Park, B., Yzerbyt, V., Gordijn, E. H. ve Muller, D. (2005). Attributions of intergroup bias and outgroup homogeneity to ingroup and outgroup others. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35(6), 677-704. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.281
Kelly, C. (1993). Group identification, intergroup perceptions and collective action. European Review of Social Psychology, 4(1), 59-83. doi: 10.1080/14792779343000022
Kızıltepe, Z. (2015). İçerik analizi. F. N. Seggie ve Y. Bayyurt (Ed.). Nitel araştırma yöntem, teknik, analiz ve yaklaşımları içinde (ss. 253-266). Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.
Lay, C. ve Verkuyten, M. (1999). Ethnic identity and its relation to personal self-esteem: A comparison of Canadian-born and foreign-born Chinese adolescents. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139(3), 288-299. doi: 10.1080/00224549909598385
Levin, S. ve Sidanius, J. (1999). Social dominance and social identity in the United States and Israel: Ingroup favoritism or outgroup derogation?. Political Psychology, 20(1), 99-126. doi: 10.1111/0162-895X.00138
Lindeman, M. (1997). Ingroup bias, self‐enhancement and group identification. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27(3), 337-355. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199705)27:3<337::AID- EJSP825>3.0.CO;2-S
Lowery, B. S., ve Wout, D. A. (2010). When inequality matters: the effect of inequality frames on academic engagement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(6), 956-966. doi: 10.1037/a0017926
Maoz, I. (2011). Does contact work in protracted asymmetrical conflict? Appraising 20 years of reconciliation-aimed encounters between Israeli Jews and Palestinians. Journal of Peace Research, 48(1), 115-125. doi: 10.1177/0022343310389506
Messick, D. M. ve Mackie, D. M. (1989). Intergroup relations. Annual Review Psychology, 40, 45-81. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ps.40.020189.000401
Mlicki, P. P. ve Ellemers, N. (1996). Being different or being beter? National stereotypes and identifications of Polish and Dutch students. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26(1), 97-114. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199601)26:1<97::AID-EJSP739>3.0.CO;2-F
Moghaddam, F. M. ve Stringer, P. (1988). Out-group similarity and intergroup bias. The Journal of Social Psychology, 128(1), 105-115. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1988.9711689
Moscatelli, S., Hewstone, M. ve Rubini, M. (2017). Different size, different language? Linguistic ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation by majority and minority groups. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 20(6), 757-769. doi: 10.1177/1368430215625784
Moss, S. M. (2016). “Country first, politics later” reasons for dual recategorization in Zanzibari narratives. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 22(4), 318-328. doi: 10.1037/pac0000223
Norris, J. I., Larsen, J. T. ve Stastny, B. J. (2010). Social perceptions of torture: Genuine disagreement, subtle malleability, and in-group bias. Peace and Conflict, 16(3), 275-294. doi: 10.1080/10781919.2010.488164
Paetzel, F. ve Sausgruber, R. (2018). Cognitive ability and in-group bias: An experimental study. Journal of Public Economics, 167(1), 280-292. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.04.006
Peucker, M. (2011). Educational approaches to reduce prejudice: A core element of human rights education in pluralistic societies. Education and Society, 29(2), 57-80. doi: 10.7459/es/29.23.05
Platow, M. J., Hoar, S., Reid, S., Harley, K. ve Morrison, D. (1997). Endorsement of distributively fair and unfair leaders in interpersonal and intergroup situations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27(4), 465-494. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199707)27:4<465::AID- EJSP817>3.0.CO;2-8
Rabbie, J. M., Schot, J. C. ve Visser, L. (1989). Social identity theory: A conceptual and empirical critique from the perspective of a behavioural interaction model. European Journal of Social Psychology, 19(3), 171-202. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2420190302
Saatçi, M. (2002). Nation–states and ethnic boundaries: Modern Turkish identity and Turkish–Kurdish conflict. Nations and Nationalism, 8(4), 549-564. doi: 10.1111/1469-8219.00065
Scheepers, D., Spears, R., Doosje, B. ve Manstead, A. S. (2006). Diversity in in-group bias: structural factors, situational features and social functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(6), 944-960. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.944
Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R. ve Sherif, C. W. (1988). The robbers cave experiment: Intergroup cooperation and conflict. OK: Wesleyan University Press.
Somer, M. (2004). Turkey's Kurdish conflict: changing context, and domestic and regional implications. The Middle East Journal, 58(2), 235-253. doi: 10.3751/58.2.14
Staub, E. (1996). Cultural-societal roots of violence: The examples of genocidal violence and of contemporary youth violence in the United States. American Psychologist, 51(2), 117-132.
Staub, E. (2003). The psychology of good and evil: Why children, adults, and groups help and harm others. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Stemler, S. (2001). An overview of content analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7(17), 137-146.
Stephan, W. G., Renfro, C. L., Esses, V. M., Stephan, C. W. ve Martin, T. (2005). The effects of feeling threatened on attitudes toward immigrants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(1), 1-19. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.04.011
Stephan, W. G., Ybarra, O., Martnez, C. M., Schwarzwald, J. ve Tur-Kaspa, M. (1998). Prejudice toward immigrants to Spain and Israel: An integrated threat theory analysis. Journal of Cross- Cultural Psychology, 29(4), 559-576. doi: 10.1177/0022022198294004
Tajfel, H. (1979). Individuals and groups in social psychology. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 18(2), 183-190. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8260.1979.tb00324.x
Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology 33(1), 1- 39. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.000245
Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., ve Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1(2), 149-178. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2420010202
Tajfel, H. ve Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. W. G. Austin ve S. Worchel (Ed.), The social psychology of ıntergroup relations içinde (ss. 33-57). Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.
Thijs, J. ve Verkuyten, M. (2014). School ethnic diversity and students' interethnic relations. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(1), 1-21. doi: 10.1111/bjep.12032
Turner, J. C. (1975). Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 5(1), 1-34. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2420050102
Vanbeselaere, N. (1991). The different effects of simple and crossed categorizations: A result of the category differentiation process or of differential category salience?. European Review of Social Psychology, 2(1), 247-278. doi: 10.1080/14792779143000088
Wagner, U., Lampen, L. ve Syllwasschy, J. (1986). In‐group inferiority, social identity and out‐group devaluation in a modified minimal group study. British Journal of Social Psychology, 25(1), 15-23. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8309.1986.tb00697.x
West, K. (2016). Jamaica, three years later: effects of intensified pro-gay activism on severe prejudice against lesbians and gay men. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(9), 1107-1117. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2016.1221028
Worchel, S., Morales, J. F., Paez, D. ve Deschamps, J. C. (Edl.). (1998). Social identity: International perspectives. London: Sage Publication.
Yıldırım, A., ve Şimşek, H. (2006). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel arastirma yöntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık
Bu çalışma Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License ile lisanslanmıştır.
Telif Hakkı (c) 2019 Nesne Psikoloji Dergisi